Handbook of Bioplastics and Biocomposites Engineering Applications

Chapter 1: An Introduction to Engineering Applications of Bioplastics

• • 1.1 Introduction
• • 1.2 Classification of Bioplastics
• • 1.3 Physical Properties
• • 1.3.1 Rheological Properties
• • 1.3.2 Optical Properties
• • 1.3.3 Mechanical and Thermal Properties
• • 1.3.4 Electrical Properties
• • 1.4 Applications of Bioplastics in Engineering
• • 1.4.1 Bioplastics Applications in Sensors
• • 1.4.2 Bioplastics Applications in Energy Sector
• • 1.4.3 Bioplastics Applications in Bioengineering
• • 1.4.4 Bioplastics Applications in “Green” Electronics
• • 1.5 Conclusions
• • Acknowledgement
• • Dedication
• • References

Chapter 2: Biobased Materials: Types and Sources

• • 2.1 Introduction
• • 2.2 Biodegradable Biobased Material
• • 2.2.1 Polysaccharides
• • 2.2.2 Starch
• • 2.2.3 Polylactic Acid
• • 2.2.4 Cellulose
• • 2.2.5 Esters
• • 2.2.6 Ether
• • 2.2.7 Chitosan
• • 2.2.8 Alginate
• • 2.2.9 Proteins
• • 2.2.10 Gluten
• • 2.2.11 Gelatine
• • 2.2.12 Casein
• • 2.2.13 Lipid
• • 2.2.14 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)
• • 2.3 Nonbiodegradable Biobased Material
• • 2.3.1 Polyethylene (PE)
• • 2.3.2 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)
• • 2.3.3 Polyamide (PA)
• • 2.4 Conclusion
• • Acknowledgment
• • References

Chapter 3: Bioplastic From Renewable Biomass

• • 3.1 Introduction
• • 3.2 Plastics and Bioplastics
• • 3.2.1 Plastics
• • 3.2.2 Bioplastics
• • 3.3 Classification of Bioplastics
• • 3.4 Bioplastic Production
• • 3.4.1 Biowaste to Bioplastic
• • 3.4.1.1 Lipid Rich Waste
• • 3.4.2 Milk Industry Waste
• • 3.4.3 Sugar Industry Waste
• • 3.4.4 Spent Coffee Beans Waste
• • 3.4.5 Bioplastic Agro-Forestry Residue
• • 3.4.6 Bioplastic from Microorganism
• • 3.4.7 Biomass-Based Polymers
• • 3.4.7.1 Biomass-Based Monomers for Polymerization Process
• • 3.5 Characterization of Bioplastics
• • 3.6 Applications of Bioplastics
• • 3.6.1 Food Packaging
• • 3.6.2 Agricultural Applications
• • 3.6.3 Biomedical Applications
• • 3.7 Bioplastic Waste Management Strategies
• • 3.7.1 Recycling of Poly(Lactic Acid) (PLA)
• • 3.7.1.1 Mechanical Recycling of PLA
• • 3.7.1.2 Chemical Recycling of PLA
• • 3.7.2 Recycling of Poly Hydroxy Alkanoates (PHAs)
• • 3.7.3 Landfill
• • 3.7.4 Incineration
• • 3.7.5 Composting
• • 3.7.6 Anaerobic Digestion
• • 3.7.6.1 Anaerobic Digestion of Poly(Hydroxyalkanoates)
• • 3.7.6.2 Anaerobic Digestion of Poly(Lactic Acid)
• • 3.8 Conclusions and Future Prospects
• • References

Chapter 4: Modeling of Natural Fiber-Based Biocomposites

• • 4.1 Introduction
• • 4.2 Generality of Biocomposites
• • 4.2.1 Natural Matrix
• • 4.2.2 Natural Reinforcement
• • 4.2.3 Natural Fiber Classification
• • 4.2.4 Biocomposites Processing
• • 4.2.4.1 Extrusion and Injection
• • 4.2.4.2 Compression Molding
• • 4.2.5 RTM-Resin Transfer Molding
• • 4.2.6 Hand Lay-Up Technique
• • 4.3 Parameters Affecting the Biocomposites Properties
• • 4.3.1 Fiber’s Aspect Ratio
• • 4.3.2 Fiber/Matrix Interfacial Adhesion
• • 4.3.3 Fibers Orientation and Dispersion
• • 4.3.3.1 Short Fibers Orientation
• • 4.3.3.2 Fiber’s Orientation in Simple Shear Flow
• • 4.3.3.3 Fiber’s Orientation in Elongational Flow
• • 4.4 Process Molding of Biocomposites
• • 4.4.1 Unidirectional Fibers
• • 4.4.1.1 Classical Laminate Theory
• • 4.4.1.2 Rule of Mixture
• • 4.4.1.3 Halpin-Tsai Model
• • 4.4.1.4 Hui-Shia Model
• • 4.4.2 Random Fibers
• • 4.4.2.1 Hirsch Model
• • 4.4.2.2 Self-Consistent Approach (Modified Hirsch Model)
• • 4.4.2.3 Tsai-Pagano Model
• • 4.5 Conclusion
• • References

Chapter 5: Process Modeling in Biocomposites

• • 5.1 Introduction
• • 5.2 Biopolymer Composites
• • 5.2.1 Natural Fiber-Based Biopolymer Composites
• • 5.2.2 Applications of Biopolymer Composites
• • 5.2.3 Properties of Biopolymer Composites
• • 5.3 Classification of Biocomposites
• • 5.3.1 PLA Biocomposites
• • 5.3.2 Nanobiocomposites
• • 5.3.3 Hybrid Biocomposites
• • 5.3.4 Natural Fiber-Based Composites
• • 5.4 Process Modeling of Biocomposite Models
• • 5.4.1 Compression Moulding
• • 5.4.2 Injection Moulding
• • 5.4.3 Extrusion Method
• • 5.5 Formulation of Models
• • 5.5.1 Types of Model
• • 5.6 Conclusion
• • References

Chapter 6: Microbial Technology in Bioplastic Production and Engineering

• • 6.1 Introduction
• • 6.2 Fundamental Principles of Microbial Bioplastic Production
• • 6.3 Bioplastics Obtained Directly from Microorganisms
• • 6.3.1 Pha
• • 6.3.2 Poly (γ-Glutamic Acid) (PGA)
• • 6.4 Bioplastics from Microbial Monomers
• • 6.4.1 Bioplastics from Aliphatic Monomers
• • 6.4.1.1 Pla
• • 6.4.1.2 Poly (Butylene Succinate)
• • 6.4.1.3 Biopolyamides (Nylons)
• • 6.4.1.4 1, 3-Propanediol (PDO)
• • 6.4.2 Bioplastics from Aromatic Monomers
• • 6.5 Lignocellulosic Biomass for Bioplastic Production
• • 6.6 Conclusion
• • References

Chapter 7: Synthesis of Green Bioplastics

• • 7.1 Introduction
• • 7.2 Bioplastic
• • 7.2.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)
• • 7.2.2 Poly(lactic acid) (PLA)
• • 7.2.3 Cellulose
• • 7.2.4 Starch
• • 7.3 Renewable Raw Material to Produce Bioplastic
• • 7.3.1 Raw Material from Agriculture
• • 7.3.2 Organic Waste as Resources for Bioplastic Production
• • 7.3.3 Algae as Resources for Bioplastic Production
• • 7.3.4 Wastewater as Resources for Bioplastic Production
• • 7.4 Bioplastics Applications
• • 7.4.1 Food Industry
• • 7.4.2 Agricultural Applications
• • 7.4.3 Medical Applications
• • 7.4.4 Other Applications
• • 7.5 Conclusions
• • References

Chapter 8: Natural Oil-Based Sustainable Materials for a Green Strategy

• • 8.1 Introduction
• • 8.2 Methodology
• • 8.2.1 Entropy Methodology
• • 8.2.2 Copras Methodology
• • 8.3 Conclusions
• • References

Chapter 9: Biomedical Applications of Bioplastics

• • 9.1 Introduction
• • 9.2 Synthesis of Bioplastics
• • 9.2.1 Starch-Based Bioplastics
• • 9.2.2 Cellulose-Based Bioplastics
• • 9.2.3 Chitin and Chitosan
• • 9.2.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)
• • 9.2.5 Polylactic Acid (PLA)
• • 9.2.6 Bioplastics from Microalgae
• • 9.3 Properties of Bioplastics
• • 9.3.1 Material Strength
• • 9.3.2 Electrical, Mechanical, and Optical Behavior of Bioplastic
• • 9.4 Biological Properties of Bioplastics
• • 9.5 Biomedical Applications of Bioplastics
• • 9.5.1 Antimicrobial Property
• • 9.5.2 Biocontrol Agents
• • 9.5.3 Pharmaceutical Applications of Bioplastics
• • 9.5.4 Implantation
• • 9.5.5 Tissue Engineering Applications
• • 9.5.6 Memory Enhancer
• • 9.6 Limitations
• • 9.7 Conclusion
• • References

Chapter 10: Applications of Bioplastics in Hygiene Cosmetic

• • 10.1 Introduction
• • 10.2 The Need to Find an Alternative to Plastic
• • 10.3 Bioplastics
• • 10.3.1 Characteristic of Bioplastics
• • 10.3.2 Types (Classification)
• • 10.3.3 Uses of Bioplastics
• • 10.4 Resources of Bioplastic
• • 10.4.1 Polysaccharides
• • 10.4.2 Starch or Amylum
• • 10.4.3 Cellulose
• • 10.4.3.1 Source of Cellulose
• • 10.5 Use of Biodegradable Materials in Packaging
• • 10.6 Bionanocomposite
• • 10.7 Hygiene Cosmetic Packaging
• • 10.8 Conclusion
• • References

Chapter 11: Biodegradable Polymers in Drug Delivery

• • 11.1 Introduction
• • 11.2 Biodegradable Polymer (BP)
• • 11.2.1 Natural
• • 11.2.1.1 Polysaccharides
• • 11.2.1.2 Proteins
• • 11.2.2 Synthetic
• • 11.2.2.1 Polyesters
• • 11.2.2.2 Polyanhydrides
• • 11.2.2.3 Polycarbonates
• • 11.2.2.4 Polyphosphazenes
• • 11.2.2.5 Polyurethanes
• • 11.3 Device Types
• • 11.3.1 Three-Dimensional Printing Devices
• • 11.3.1.1 Implants
• • 11.3.1.2 Tablets
• • 11.3.1.3 Microneedles
• • 11.3.1.4 Nanofibers
• • 11.3.2 Nanocarriers
• • 11.3.2.1 Nanoparticles
• • 11.3.2.2 Dendrimers
• • 11.3.2.3 Hydrogels
• • 11.4 Applications
• • 11.4.1 Intravenous
• • 11.4.2 Transdermal
• • 11.4.3 Oral
• • 11.4.4 Ocular
• • 11.5 Existing Materials in the Market
• • 11.6 Conclusions and Future Projections
• • References

Chapter 12: Microorganism-Derived Bioplastics for Clinical Applications

• • 12.1 Introduction
• • 12.2 Types of Bioplastics
• • 12.2.1 Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB)
• • 12.2.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoate
• • 12.2.3 Poly-Lactic Acid
• • 12.2.4 Poly Lactic-co-Glycolic Acid (PLGA)
• • 12.2.5 Poly (ԑ-caprolactone) (PCL)
• • 12.3 Properties of Bioplastics
• • 12.3.1 Physiochemical, Mechanical, and Biological Properties of Bioplastics
• • 12.3.1.1 Polylactic Acid
• • 12.3.1.2 Poly Lactic-co-Glycolic Acid
• • 12.3.1.3 Polycaprolactone
• • 12.3.1.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
• • 12.3.1.5 Polyethylene Glycol (PEG)
• • 12.4 Applications
• • 12.4.1 Tissue Engineering
• • 12.4.2 Drug Delivery System
• • 12.4.3 Implants and Prostheses
• • 12.5 Conclusion
• • References

Chapter 13: Biomedical Applications of Biocomposites Derived From Cellulose

• • 13.1 Introduction
• • 13.2 Importance of Cellulose in the Field of Biocomposite
• • 13.3 Classification of Cellulose
• • 13.4 Synthesis of Cellulose in Different Form
• • 13.4.1 Mechanical Extraction
• • 13.4.2 Electrochemical Method
• • 13.4.3 Chemical Extraction
• • 13.4.4 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
• • 13.4.5 Bacterial Production of Cellulose
• • 13.5 Formation of Biocomposite Using Different Form of Cellulose
• • 13.6 Biocomposites Derived from Cellulose and Their Application
• • 13.6.1 Tissue Engineering
• • 13.6.2 Wound Dressing
• • 13.6.3 Drug Delivery
• • 13.6.4 Dental Applications
• • 13.6.5 Other Applications
• • 13.7 Conclusion
• • References

Chapter 14: Biobased Materials for Biomedical Engineering

• • 14.1 Introduction
• • 14.2 Biomaterials
• • 14.3 Biobased Materials for Implants and Tissue Engineering
• • 14.3.1 Skin Tissue Engineering and Wound Dressings
• • 14.3.2 Bone Tissue Engineering
• • 14.3.3 Cartilage Tissue Engineering
• • 14.3.4 Ligament and Tendon Implants and Tissue Engineering
• • 14.3.5 Cardiovascular Implants and Tissue Engineering
• • 14.3.5.1 Valve Implants
• • 14.3.5.2 Artificial Heart/Cardiac Patches
• • 14.3.5.3 Vascular Grafts and TE
• • 14.3.6 Liver Tissue Engineering and Bioreactors
• • 14.3.7 Kidney Tissue Engineering and Dialysis Devices
• • 14.3.8 Nervous Tissue Engineering and Implants
• • 14.4 Auxiliary Materials
• • 14.5 Conclusion and Future Trends
• • References

Chapter 15: Applications of Bioplastics in Sports and Leisure

• • 15.1 Introduction
• • 15.1.1 Plastic Pollution Due to Leisure and Sports Industries
• • 15.1.2 Bioplastics: Overview and Classification
• • 15.1.2.1 Biobased Nonbiodegradable
• • 15.1.2.2 Biobased, Biodegradable
• • 15.1.2.3 Fossil-Based, Biodegradable
• • 15.2 Bioplastic in Leisure
• • 15.2.1 Camping
• • 15.2.2 Eyewear
• • 15.2.3 Toys
• • 15.2.4 Electronic Equipment and Other
• • 15.3 Bioplastic in Sports
• • 15.3.1 Shoes and Sneakers
• • 15.3.2 Ski Boots
• • 15.3.3 Snow Goggles
• • 15.3.4 Surfboards and Surfskates
• • 15.3.5 Sportscar
• • 15.3.6 Football, Baseball, Basketball, Soccer Ball, and Volleyball
• • 15.3.7 Hockey
• • 15.4 Conclusion
• • References

Chapter 16: Biocomposites in Active and Intelligent Food Packaging Applications

• • 16.1 Introduction
• • 16.2 Advances in Biocomposite Application in Active and Intelligent Food Packaging
• • 16.2.1 Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Properties in Active Food Packaging
• • 16.2.2 Gaseous Scavenging Activity in Active Food Packaging
• • 16.2.3 Freshness and Food Quality Detection in Intelligent Food Packaging
• • 16.3 Biocomposites Incorporated with Natural Compounds
• • 16.3.1 Plant Extracts
• • 16.3.2 Essential Oils
• • 16.3.3 Enzymes and Bacteriocins
• • 16.3.4 Challenges in Food Packaging Applications of Biocomposites Integrated With Natural Compounds
• • 16.4 Biocomposites Incorporated with Inorganic Materials
• • 16.4.1 Metal Compounds
• • 16.4.2 Clay and Silicate-Based Mineral Compounds
• • 16.4.3 Challenges in Food Packaging Applications of Biocomposites Integrated with Inorganic Materials
• • 16.5 Biocomposites Incorporated with Natural Food Colorants and Pigments
• • 16.5.1 Intelligent Food Packaging with Natural Food Colorants and Pigments
• • 16.5.2 Potential of Natural Food Colorants and Pigments as Active and Intelligent Food Packaging
• • 16.5.3 Challenges in Food Packaging Applications of Biocomposites Integrated with Natural Food Colorants and Pigments
• • 16.6 Conclusion
• • References

Chapter 17: Biofoams for Packaging Applications

• • 17.1 Introduction
• • 17.2 Biofoams from Botanical and Plant Sources
• • 17.3 Starch and Their Blends
• • 17.4 Cellulose-Based Biofoams for Packaging Application
• • 17.5 Packaging Foams from Animal-Based Polysaccharides
• • 17.6 Seaweed-Based Biofoams
• • 17.7 Polylactic Acid
• • 17.8 Tree Gum-Based Foams
• • 17.9 Karaya Gum-Based Foams
• • 17.10 Kondagogu Gum-Based Foams
• • 17.11 Microbial Gum-Based Packaging Foams
• • 17.12 Conclusion and Outlooks
• • References