Vacuum and Ultravacuum
Physics and Technology
by Igor Bello
1st Edition
Publisher: CRC Press
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Book Details
| Print ISBN | 9781498782043 |
| eText ISBN | 9781351651400 |
| Publisher | CRC Press |
| Publishing Year | 2018 |
| Edition | 1st Edition |
| Language | English |
| Pages | 1062 |
Vacuum and Ultravacuum: Physics and Technology, 1st Edition, examines the physical principles and technological systems associated with low-pressure environments. The book analyzes gas behavior and the engineering methods required to generate and sustain vacuum states.
Coverage spans the fundamental physics of low pressures, vacuum production machinery, and pressure measurement techniques. The volume outlines the theoretical foundations governing gas dynamics, the operational categories of vacuum pumps, and the instrumentation used to monitor low-pressure conditions.
Based on physical models and calculated examples, the text connects theoretical concepts to industrial and scientific applications. These processes support material synthesis, deposition, and analysis across fields such as microelectronics, metallurgy, space science, and pharmaceuticals.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Fundamental Quantities in Vacuum Physics
- • 1.1 Gases and Other Forms of Matters
- • 1.2 Avogadro Law
- • 1.3 Standard Molar Volume
- • 1.4 Gas Molar Quantity
- • 1.5 Loschmidt Number
- • 1.6 Vacuum
- • 1.7 Barometric Equation
- • 1.8 Vacuum Regions
- • 1.9 Basic Quantities and Units in Vacuum Technique
- • 1.10 Examples for Gas Force Effects and Mass Flow Rates
Chapter 2: Molecular Kinetic Theory and its Implications
- • 2.1 Bernoulli Equation as Implication of Molecular Kinetic Theory of Gases
- • 2.2 Ideal Gas Law
- • 2.3 Boltzmann Equation
- • 2.4 Compressibility of Ideal Gases: Boyle’s Law
- • 2.5 Volumetric Expansion of Ideal Gases: Gay-Lussac Law
- • 2.6 Pressure Expansion of Ideal Gases: Charles’ Law
- • 2.7 Dalton Law of Partial Pressures
- • 2.8 Amagat Law of Partial Volumes
- • 2.9 Measurement of Gas Molar Masses
- • 2.10 Examples Applied to Ideal Gas Laws
- • 2.11 Partition of Molecular Energy
- • 2.12 Partition of Molecular Energy by Quantum Mechanics
- • 2.13 Velocities of Molecules and their Distribution
- • 2.14 Average Thermal Velocity
- • 2.15 The Most Probable Velocity
- • 2.16 Root Mean Square Velocity
- • 2.17 Velocity Distribution Functions Respecting the Direction of Molecular Motion
- • 2.18 Molecular Flux and Molecular Flux Density
- • 2.19 Mean Free Path of Particles
- • 2.20 Mean Free Path of Molecules in a Binary Gas Mixtures
- • 2.21 Mean Free path of Molecules in a Gas of the Same Kind
- • 2.22 Mean Free Path of Electrons in a Single Molecular Gas
- • 2.23 Mean Free Path of Ions in a Gas of the Same Kind
- • 2.24 Mean Free Path of Arbitrary Ions in a Single Gas Environment
- • 2.25 Mean Free Path of Electrons in an Electron Environment
- • 2.26 Sutherland Corrections for Mean Free Paths
- • 2.27 Distribution of Molecules According to their Free Paths
- • 2.28 Practical Implication of Mean Free Paths and their Distribution
- • 2.29 Criterion of Mean Free Path
- • 2.30 Examples for Molecular Kinetic Theory of Gases
Chapter 3: Thermodynamics of Gases at Low Pressures
- • 3.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics and Enthalpy Applied to Ideal gases
- • 3.2 Definition of Gas Heat Capacities
- • 3.3 Isochoric Processes: Molar Heat of Ideal Gases at Constant Volume
- • 3.4 Isobaric Processes of Ideal Gases and Mayer’s Formula
- • 3.5 Isothermal Processes of Ideal Gases
- • 3.6 Adiabatic Processes of Ideal Gases
- • 3.7 Polytropic Processes of Ideal Gases
- • 3.8 Measurement of Gas Heat Capacities
- • 3.9 Measurement of Heat Capacity Ratio
- • 3.10 The Second Law of Thermodynamics Applied to Ideal Gases
- • 3.11 Entropy of Gas Systems
- • 3.12 Thermodynamic Free Energy
- • 3.13 Thermodynamic Equilibrium of Gaseous Phases with their Other Phases
- • 3.14 Equilibrium of Gaseous Phases from Kinetic Theory of Gases
- • 3.15 Saturated Vapor Pressure of some Materials used in Vacuum Technology
- • 3.16 Vacuum Thermal Evaporation
- • 3.17 Thermal Evaporation from Multiple Sources
- • 3.18 Conditions at Vacuum Thermal Evaporation
- • 3.19 Scaling of Evaporation Systems
- • 3.20 Different Thermal Evaporation Techniques
- • 3.21 Cross Contamination at Thermal Evaporation
- • 3.22 Degassing of Evaporation Sources
- • 3.23 Examples Applied to Thermodynamics of Gases and Thin Film Deposition
- • 3.24 Sputtering, Deposition, and Sputtering Yield
Chapter 4: Real Gases
- • 4.1 Attractive and Repulsive Forces in Real Gases
- • 4.2 State Equations of Real Gases
- • 4.3 Van der Waals State Equation of Real Gases
- • 4.4 Others States Equations of Real Gases
- • 4.5. Internal Energy of Real Gases
- • 4.6 Heat of Vaporization
- • 4.7 Heating or Cooling of Real Gases at Adiabatic Expansion
- • 4.8 Liquefaction of Gases
- • 4.9 Examples of Real Gases
Chapter 5: Transfer Phenomena in Gases at Vacuum Conditions
- • 5.1 Transfer Processes at Low Vacuum, Viscous Conditions
- • 5.2 Internal Friction of Gases - Viscosity at Low Vacuum, Viscous Conditions
- • 5.3 Diffusion of Gases at Low Vacuum, Viscous Conditions
- • 5.4 Thermal Conductivity at Viscous Low Vacuum Conditions
- • 5.5 Transport Phenomena at High Vacuum, Free Molecular Conditions
- • 5.6 Gas Friction with Walls at High Vacuum, Free Molecular Conditions
- • 5.7 Diffusion at High Vacuum, Free Molecular Conditions
- • 5.8 Thermal Conductivity at High Vacuum, Free Molecular Conditions
- • 5.9 Evaluation of Transfer Coefficients
- • 5.10 Examples for Transfer Coefficients
- • 5.11 Diffusion of Electrically Charged Particles and Their Mobility
- • 5.12 Ambipolar Diffusion
Chapter 6: Molecular Collisions
- • 6.1 Elastic Direct Collisions of Two Molecules
- • 6.2 Energy Loss of Backscattered Particles upon their Collisions with Solids
- • 6.3 Molecular Collisions with Walls
- • 6.4 Heat Transfer and Thermal Accommodation Coefficients
- • 6.5 Thermal Accommodation Coefficients at Free Molecular Conditions
- • 6.6 Thermal Accommodation Coefficients for Plate Configurations at Free Molecular Conditions
- • 6.7 Thermal Accommodation Coefficients for Coaxial Wire-Cylinder Configurations at Free Molecular Conditions
- • 6.8 Thermal Accommodation Coefficients for Parallel Plates at Free Molecular Conditions
- • 6.9 Thermal Accommodation Coefficients for Coaxial Cylinders at Free Molecular Conditions
- • 6.10 The Distance of Temperature Discontinuity: Temperature Jump
- • 6.11 Heat Transfer between Parallel Plates at Transition Conditions
- • 6.12 Heat Transfer between Coaxial Cylinders at Transition Conditions
- • 6.13 Slip Coefficients, Diffusive Reflection and Tangential Momentum Accommodation
- • 6.14 Slip Coefficient and Viscous Drag Force on a Plate in the Gas Slip Regime
- • 6.15 Coefficient of Tangential Momentum Accommodation at Free Molecular Flow
Chapter 7: Gas Flow at Vacuum Conditions
- • 7.1 Gas Flow through Long Ducts in a Laminar Regime: Poiseuille Equation
- • 7.2 Laminar Conductance of Ducts with Non-Circular Cross Sections
- • 7.3 Intermediate Gas Flow Regime and Gas Slip Flow
- • 7.4 Gas Flow in the Molecular Regime
- • 7.5 Gas Flow via Long Cylindrical Tubes in the Molecular Regime
- • 7.6 Molecular Conductance of Long Ducts with Rectangular Slit Cross-Sections
- • 7.7 Knudsen Formula for Molecular Gas Flow
- • 7.8 Molecular Conductance of Long Ducts with Different Shapes by Knudsen Formula
- • 7.9 Molecular Conductance for Long Ducts by Universal Smoluchowski Formula
- • 7.10 Molecular Flow of Gases via Apertures and Orifices
- • 7.11 Thermal Transpiration
- • 7.12 Effusion Rate of Two Different Gases
- • 7.13 Effect of Diaphragm Aperture at Molecular Flow
- • 7.14 Molecular Flow via Short Vacuum Ducts
- • 7.15 Short Tubes with Circular Cross Sections by Clausing’s Transmission Theory
- • 7.16 Transmission Probabilities for Molecular Conductance of Short Ducts
- • 7.17 Examples for Calculation of Short Ducts
- • 7.18 Transmission Probability by the Mote Carlo Method
- • 7.19 Beaming Phenomena at Gas Flow
- • 7.20 Molecular Conductance and Resistance in Serial Duct Connections
- • 7.21 Molecular Conductance/Resistance in Complex Vacuum Circuits
- • 7.22 Effective Pumping Speed in the Molecular Flow Regime
- • 7.23 Gas Flow via Capillaries
- • 7.24 Flow Time through Capillaries
- • 7.25 Molecular Beams in Vacuum
- • 7.26 Compressible Gas Flow and Gas Jet
Chapter 8: Sorption
- • 8.1 Adsorption
- • 8.2. Henry Adsorption Isotherms
- • 8.3 Monomolecular Layer
- • 8.4 Freundlich Adsorption Isotherms
- • 8.5 Langmuir Adsorption Theory
- • 8.6 Polymolecular Adsorption by BET Adsorption Theory
- • 8.7 Rate of Adsorption and Desorption
- • 8.8 Adsorption Surfaces
- • 8.9 Methods for the Determination of True Surface Area
- • 8.10 Surface Migration of Adsorbed Molecules
- • 8.11 Absorption
- • 8.12 Absorption and Gas Flow via Solids
- • 8.13 Absorption and Permeation of Gases through Solids
- • 8.14 Outgassing and Degassing of Materials
Chapter 9: Pumping Vacuum Systems
- • 9.1 Pumping Vacuum Systems in the Viscous Regime of a Gas Flow
- • 9.2 Pumping Vacuum Systems in the Free Molecular Regime of a Gas Flow
Chapter 10: Categorization of Vacuum Pumps
Chapter 11: Mechanical Displacement Pumps
- • 11.1 Piston Pumps
- • 11.2 Rotary Oil Vane Pumps
- • 11.3 Rotary Oil Piston Pumps
- • 11.4 Rotary Oil Pumps with Large Pumping Capacities
- • 11.5 Determination of Ideal Pumping Speeds of Rotary Oil Vane Pumps
- • 11.6 Experimental Pumping Speeds of Rotary Oil Pumps
- • 11.7 Pumping Speed Measured by the Method of Constant Pressure
- • 11.8 Pumping Speed Determined by the Method of Constant Volume
- • 11.9 Sealing, Lubrication and Safety Precaution at the Operation of Rotary Oil Pumps
- • 11.10 Contamination of Vacuum Systems and its Suppression
- • 11.11 Suppression of Vacuum Contamination by Traps
- • 11.12 Liquid and Water Ring Pumps
Chapter 12: Dry Displacement Pumps
- • 12.1 Dry Piston Pumps
- • 12.2 Dry Rotary Vane Pumps
- • 12.3 Dry Diaphragm Pumps
- • 12.4 Roots Pumps
- • 12.5 Tri-lobed Pumps
- • 12.6 Rotary Claw and Hook Pumps
- • 12.7 Screw Pumps
- • 12.8 Scroll Vacuum Pumps
Chapter 13: Mechanical Kinetic Pumps
- • 13.1 Molecular Drag Pumps
- • 13.2 Molecular Drag Pumps at Low Vacuum (Laminar Flow)
- • 13.3 Molecular Drag Pump Operating at Molecular Flow
- • 13.4 Turbomolecular Pumps
- • 13.5 Side Channel or Regenerative Vacuum Pumps
Chapter 14: Kinetic Propellant Pumps and Accessories
- • 14.1 Vacuum Water Jet Pumps
- • 14.2 Vapor Jet Ejector Pumps
- • 14.3 Diffusion Pumps
- • 14.4 Determination of Pumping Speed of Diffusion Pumps
- • 14.5 Towards Contamination Free Vacuum
Chapter 15: Capture Pumps
- • 15.1 Cryosorption Pumps
- • 15.2 Cryogenic Pumps
- • 15.3 Getters as Vacuum Chemical Pumps
- • 15.4 Evaporable and Flash Getters as Chemical Pumps
- • 15.5 Sublimation Getter Pumps
- • 15.6 Non-evaporable Getters as Vacuum Chemical Pumps
- • 15.7 Electrostatic Ion Pumps
- • 15.8 Electrostatic Getter Triode Ion Pumps and Orbitron Pumps
- • 15.9 Hybrid Magnetic Ion Sputter Pumps
Chapter 16: Introduction into the Low Pressure Measurements
- • 16.1 Total Pressure Measurements
Chapter 17: Force Gauges with Manometric Liquids
- • 17.1 U-Tube Manometers
- • 17.2 Buoyant manometers
- • 17.3 McLeod Compression Gauges
Chapter 18: Force Gauges with Elastic Deformation Elements
- • 18.1 Bourdon Vacuum Gauges
- • 18.2 Diaphragm and Capsule Gauges
- • 18.3 Capacitance Diaphragm Gauges
- • 18.4 Miniature Diaphragm Gauges
- • 18.5 Piezoresistive Vacuum Gauges
Chapter 19: Force Gauges with Solid Sensing Elements
- • 19.1 Piston Vacuum Gauges
- • 19.2 Vane Vacuum Gauges
- • 19.3 Molecular Knudsen Gauges
Chapter 20: Viscosity Molecular Gauges
- • 20.1 Dynamic Viscosity Gauges
- • 20.2 Oscillation and Decremental Viscosity Disc Gauge
- • 20.3 Viscosity vacuum Gauges with Oscillating Fibers and Ribbons
- • 20.4 Viscosity Gauges with Electrical Excitation: Becker’s Gauges
- • 20.5 Oscillating Fork Quartz Crystal Viscosity Gauges
- • 20.6 Spinning Rotor Gauges
Chapter 21: Vacuum Thermal Gauges
- • 21.1 Resistor Thermal Conductivity Gauges – Pirani Gauges
- • 21.2 Thermistor Vacuum Gauges
- • 21.3 Thermocouple Vacuum Gauges
- • 21.4 Dilatation Thermal Gauges
- • 21.5 Unconventional Thermal Vacuum Gauges
Chapter 22: Ionization Gauges with Hot Filaments
- • 22.1 Bayard-Alpert Gauges
- • 22.2 Modulated Bayard-Alpert Gauges
- • 22.3 Nottingham Ionization Gauges
- • 22.4 Orbitron Gauges
- • 22.5 Extractor Gauges with Hot Filaments
- • 22.6 Extractor Ionization Gauges with Electrostatic Radial Cylindrical Deflectors
- • 22.7 Extractor Ionization Gauges with Electrostatic Hemispherical Deflectors
- • 22.8 Ionization Gauges with Bessel Analyzers
- • 22.9 Klopfer Ion Gauge
- • 22.10 Lafferty Hot Filament Gauges with Magnetic Field
- • 22.11 High Pressure Ionization Gauges with Hot Filaments
Chapter 23: Electric Discharge Vacuum Gauges
- • 23.1 Electric Discharge Tube Gauges
- • 23.2 Vacuum Testers
- • 23.3 Discharge Pressure Gauges with Optical Sensing
- • 23.4 Cold Cathode Ionization Gauges with Magnetic Field
Chapter 24: Vacuum Gauges with Radioactive Emitters
Chapter 25: Partial Pressure Measurement at Vacuum Conditions
- • 25.1 Direct Methods of Partial Pressure Measurements
- • 25.2 Indirect Methods of Partial Pressure Measurements
- • 25.3 Mass Spectrometers
- • 25.4 Mass Spectrometer with Magnetic Sector Field
- • 25.5 Double Focusing Mass Spectrometers
- • 25.6 Thompson Parabola Mass Spectrometers
- • 25.7 Trochotrons: Cycloidal Mass Spectrometers
- • 25.8 Wien Filters
- • 25.9 Mass Spectrometers with Crossed Magnetic and Radial Electric Fields
- • 25.10 Dynamic Mass Spectrometers with Combined Electric Fields
- • 25.11 Time of Flight Mass Spectrometers
- • 25.12 Radio Frequency Resonance Mass Spectrometers
- • 25.13 Farvitrons, Pendelions
- • 25.14 Omegatrons
- • 25.15 Fourier Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance Mass Spectrometers
- • 25.16 Quadrupole Mass Spectrometers
- • 25.17 Monopole Mass Spectrometers
Chapter 26: Energy Analyzers of Electrically Charged Particles
- • 26.1 Parallel-Plate Electrostatic Energy Analyzers
- • 26.2 Radial Cylindrical Electrostatic Analyzers
- • 26.3 Cylindrical Mirror Analyzers
- • 26.4 Concententic Hemispherical Analyzers
Chapter 27: Gas Flow Measurements and Controls
- • 27.1 Flowmeters Based on Volumetric Measurements
- • 27.2 Measurements of Gas Flows by Accumulation Methods
- • 27.3 Measurements of Gas Flow by Calibrated Apertures
- • 27.4 Venturi Flowmeters and Pitot Velocity Tubes
- • 27.5 Rotameters
- • 27.6 Thermal Mass Flowmeters and Controllers
Chapter 28: Leak Detection
- • 28.1 Accumulation Methods of Leak Detections
- • 28.2 High Pressure Methods of Leak Detections
- • 28.3 Leak Detections with Testing Fluids
- • 28.4 Leak Detections using Electric Discharges
- • 28.5 Vacuometric Methods of Leak Detections
- • 28.6 Leak Detections using Gas Permeations
- • 28.7 Luminescence Leak Detections
- • 28.8 Radioactive Methods of Leak Detections
- • 28.9 Halogen Leak Detectors
- • 28.10 Mass Spectrometric Methods of Leak Detections
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