Hydraulic Fracturing and Well Stimulation, Volume 1

Part 1: Introduction

Chapter 1: Hydraulic Fracturing, An Overview

• • 1.1 What is Hydraulic Fracturing?
• • 1.2 Why Hydraulic Fracturing is Important
• • 1.3 Fracture Characterization
• • 1.4 Geomechanics of Hydraulic Fracturing
• • 1.5 Environmental Aspects of Hydraulic Fracturing
• • 1.6 Induced Seismicity
• • 1.7 Case Study: Fracturing Induced Seismicity in California
• • 1.8 Assessment of Global Oil and Gas Resources Amenable for Extraction via Hydraulic Fracturing
• • 1.9 Economics of HF
• • 1.10 Conclusions
• • Acknowledgement
• • References

Part 2: General Concepts

Chapter 2: Evolution of Stress Transfer Mechanisms During Mechanical Interaction Between Hydraulic Fractures and Natural Fractures

• • 2.1 Introduction
• • 2.2 Physical Model
• • 2.3 Mathematical Formulation
• • 2.4 Numerical Model
• • 2.5 Simulation Results
• • 2.6 Effect of Hydraulic Fracturing on Natural Fractures
• • 2.7 Conclusion
• • References

Chapter 3: Primer on Hydraulic Fracturing Concerning Initiatives on Energy Sustainability

• • 3.1 Hydraulic Fracturing
• • 3.1.1 Environmental Impact – Reality vs. Myth
• • 3.1.2 The Tower of Babel and How it Could be the Cause of Much of the Fracking Debate
• • 3.1.3 Frac Fluids and Composition
• • 3.1.4 Uses and Needs for Frac Fluids
• • 3.1.5 Common Fracturing Additives
• • 3.1.6 Typical Percentages of Commonly Used Additives
• • 3.1.6.1 Proppants
• • 3.1.6.2 Silica Sand
• • 3.1.6.3 Resin Coated Proppant
• • 3.1.6.4 Manufactured Ceramics Proppants
• • 3.2 Additional Types
• • 3.3 Other Most Common Objections to Drilling Operations
• • 3.3.1 Noise
• • 3.4 Changes in Landscape and Beauty of Surroundings
• • 3.5 Increased Traffic
• • 3.6 Chemicals and Products on Locations
• • 3.6.1 Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
• • 3.6.1.1 Contents of an MSDS
• • 3.6.1.2 Product Identification
• • 3.6.1.3 Hazardous Ingredients of Mixtures
• • 3.6.1.4 Physical Data
• • 3.6.1.5 Fire & Explosion Hazard Data
• • 3.6.1.6 Health Hazard Data
• • 3.6.1.7 Reactivity Data
• • 3.6.1.8 Personal Protection Information
• • 3.7 Conclusion
• • Bibliography

Chapter 4: A Graph Theoretic Approach for Spatial Analysis of Induced Fracture Networks

• • 4.1 Background and Rationale
• • 4.2 Graph-Based Spatial Analysis
• • 4.2.1 Acquire Geologic Data and Define Regional Bounding Lithology
• • 4.2.2 Details of the Topological Algorithm
• • 4.2.2.1 Data Acquisition, Conditioning and Quanta
• • 4.2.2.2 Details of the k-Nearest Neighbor Algorithm
• • 4.2.3 The Value of the Topological Approach Algorithm
• • 4.3 Real World Applications of the Algorithm
• • 4.3.1 Bradford Field: Contrasting the Graph-Based Approaches; k Sensitivity
• • 4.3.1.1 Data Sources
• • 4.3.1.2 Results
• • 4.3.2 Armstrong PA: Testing the Algorithms Against a Known Leakage Scenario
• • 4.3.2.1 Data Sources
• • 4.3.2.2 Results
• • 4.4 Discussion
• • 4.4.1 Uses for Industry and Regulators
• • 4.5 Conclusions
• • Acknowledgements
• • References

Part 3: Optimum Design Parameters

Chapter 5: Fracture Spacing Design for Multistage Hydraulic Fracturing Completions for Improved Productivity

• • 5.1 Introduction
• • 5.2 Method
• • 5.2.1 Impact of Natural Fractures
• • 5.2.2 Workflow
• • 5.2.3 Model Fine-Tuning
• • 5.2.4 Need for Artificial Intelligence
• • 5.3 Data
• • 5.4 Results
• • 5.4.1 Applicability Considerations
• • 5.5 Concluding Remarks
• • Acknowledgement
• • References

Chapter 6: Clustering-Based Optimal Perforation Design Using Well Logs

• • 6.1 Introduction
• • 6.2 Objective and Motivation
• • 6.3 Technology
• • 6.4 Clustering Analysis
• • 6.4.1 C-Means (FCM) Algorithm
• • 6.5 Methodology and Analysis
• • 6.5.1 Available Data
• • 6.6 Applying the FCM Algorithm
• • 6.7 Results and Discussion
• • 6.8 Conclusions
• • Acknowledgements
• • References

Chapter 7: Horizontal Well Spacing and Hydraulic Fracturing Design Optimization: A Case Study on Utica-Point Pleasant Shale Play

• • 7.1 Introduction
• • 7.2 Methodology
• • 7.2.1 The Base Reservoir Simulation Model
• • 7.3 Optimization Scenarios
• • 7.4 Results and Discussion
• • 7.4.1 Base Reservoir Model – A Single Well Case
• • 7.4.2 Multi-Lateral Depletion – Finding the Optimum Number of Wells
• • 7.4.3 Completion Parameters
• • 7.4.4 Second Economic Scenario, Reducing the Cost of Completion
• • 7.5 Conclusion
• • Acknowledgments

Part 4: Fracture Reservoir Characterization

• • Introduction
• • References

Chapter 8: Geomechanical Modeling of Fault Systems Using the Material Point Method – Application to the Estimation of Induced Seismicity Potential to Bolster Hydraulic Fracturing Social License

• • 8.1 Introduction
• • 8.2 The Social License to Operate (SLO)
• • 8.3 Regional Faults in Oklahoma, USA and Alberta, Canada used as Input in Geomechanical Modeling
• • 8.4 Modeling Earthquake Potential using Numerical Material Models
• • 8.5 A New Workflow for Estimating Induced Seismicity Potential and its Application to Oklahoma and Alberta
• • 8.6 The Benefits of a Large Scale Predictive Model and Future Research
• • 8.7 Conflict of Interest
• • Acknowledgements
• • References

Chapter 9: Correlating Pressure with Microseismic to Understand Fluid-Reservoir Interactions During Hydraulic Fracturing

• • 9.1 Introduction
• • 9.2 Method
• • 9.2.1 Pressure Data Analysis
• • 9.2.2 Microseismic Data Analysis
• • 9.3 Data
• • 9.4 Results
• • 9.4.1 Pitfalls in Analysis
• • 9.5 Conclusions
• • 9.6 Acknowledgements
• • References

Chapter 10: Multigrid Fracture Stimulated Reservoir Volume Mapping Coupled with a Novel Mathematical Optimization Approach to Shale Reservoir Well and Fracture Design

• • 10.1 Introduction
• • 10.2 Problem Definition and Modeling
• • 10.2.1 Geometric Interpretation
• • 10.2.1.1 Fracture Geometry
• • 10.2.2 The Developed Model Flow Chart
• • 10.2.3 Well and Fracture Design Vector Components
• • 10.3 Development of a New Mathematical Model
• • 10.3.1 Methodology
• • 10.3.2 Objective Function
• • 10.3.3 Assumptions and Constraints Considered in the Mathematical Model
• • 10.3.3.1 Sets
• • 10.3.3.2 Variables
• • 10.3.3.3 Decision Variables
• • 10.3.3.4 Extended Sets
• • 10.3.3.5 Constant Parameters
• • 10.3.3.6 Constraints
• • 10.3.4 Stimulated Reservoir Volume Representation
• • 10.3.5 Optimization Procedure
• • 10.4 Model Building
• • 10.4.1 Simulation Model of Well Pad and SRV’s Evaluation
• • 10.5 Results and Discussions
• • 10.6 Conclusions and Recommendations
• • References
• • Appendix A: Abbreviations
• • Appendix B: Definition of the Fracturability Index Used in the Well Placement Process
• • Appendix C: Geometric Interpretation of Parameters Used in Building the Model

Chapter 11: A Semi-Analytical Model for Predicting Productivity of Refractured Oil Wells with Uniformly Distributed Radial Fractures

• • 11.1 Introduction
• • 11.2 Mathematical Model
• • 11.3 Model Verification
• • 11.4 Sensitivity Analysis
• • 11.5 Conclusions
• • Acknowledgements
• • References
• • Appendix A: Derivation of Inflow Equation for Wells with Radial Fractures under Pseudo-Steady State Flow Conditions

Part 5: Environmental Issues of Hydraulic Fracturing

• • Introduction
• • References

Chapter 12: The Role of Human Factors Considerations and Safety Culture in the Safety of Hydraulic Fracturing (Fracking)

• • 12.1 Introduction
• • 12.2 Benefits of Hydraulic Fracturing
• • 12.3 Common Criticisms
• • 12.4 Different Steps of Hydraulic Fracturing and Proposed Human Factors Considerations
• • 12.5 Hydraulic Fracturing Process: Drilling
• • 12.6 Hydraulic Fracturing Process: Fluid Injection
• • 12.7 Fracking Fluid
• • 12.8 Wastewater
• • 12.9 Human Factors and Safety Culture Considerations
• • 12.9.1 Human Factors
• • 12.9.1.1 Microergonomics
• • 12.9.1.2 Macroergonomics
• • 12.9.2 Safety Culture
• • 12.10 Examples of Recent Incidents
• • 12.11 Conclusion and Recommendations
• • Acknowledgment
• • References

Chapter 13: Flowback of Fracturing Fluids with Upgraded Visualization of Hydraulic Fractures and Its Implications on Overall Well Performance

• • 13.1 Introduction
• • 13.2 Assumptions
• • 13.3 Upgraded Visualization of Hydraulic Fracturing
• • 13.3.1 Concept
• • 13.3.2 Results
• • 13.4 Reasons for Partial Flowback
• • 13.4.1 Fracture Modelling
• • 13.4.2 Depth of Penetration
• • 13.4.3 Closing of Fractures
• • 13.4.4 Chemical Interaction of Fracturing Fluids
• • 13.5 Impact of Parameters under Control
• • 13.6 Loss in Incremental Oil Production
• • 13.7 Conclusions
• • 13.8 Limitations
• • References
• • Appendix A

Chapter 14: Assessing the Groundwater Contamination Potential from a Well in a Hydraulic Fracturing Operation

• • 14.1 Introduction
• • 14.2 Risk Pathways to the Shallow Groundwater
• • 14.3 Problem Statement
• • 14.4 Mathematical Formulation
• • 14.5 Hypothetical Case Description and the Numerical Method
• • 14.6 Results and Discussion
• • 14.7 Conclusion
• • References