The Bedford Handbook

Chapter 1: Exploring, planning, and drafting

• • 1a Assess your writing situation.
• • 1b Explore your subject.
• • 1c Draft and revise a working thesis statement.
• • 1d Draft a plan.
• • 1e Draft an introduction.
• • 1f Draft the body.
• • 1g Draft a conclusion.

Chapter 2: Writing effective paragraphs

• • 2a Focus on a main point.
• • 2b Make paragraphs coherent.
• • 2c Choose a suitable strategy for developing paragraphs.

Chapter 3: Revising, editing, and proofreading

• • 3a Use peer review: Give constructive comments.
• • 3b Use peer review: Revise with comments.
• • 3c Approach global revision in cycles.
• • 3d Revise and edit sentences.
• • 3e Proofread and format the final version of your essay.
• • 3f Reflect on your writing.

Chapter 4: Reading critically; writing analytically

• • 4a Read actively.
• • 4b Summarize to deepen your understanding.
• • 4c Analyze to demonstrate your critical reading.
• • 4d Sample student writing: Analysis of an article
• • 4e Read and write about multimodal texts.

Chapter 5: Reading arguments

• • 5a Read with an open mind and a critical eye.
• • 5b Evaluate ethical, logical, and emotional appeals.
• • 5c Evaluate the evidence behind an argument.
• • 5d Evaluate how fairly a writer handles opposing views.

Chapter 6: Writing arguments

• • 6a Identify your purpose and context.
• • 6b View your audience as a panel of jurors.
• • 6c In your introduction, establish credibility and state your position.
• • 6d Back up your thesis with persuasive lines of argument.
• • 6e Support your thesis with specific evidence.
• • 6f Anticipate objections; counter opposing arguments.
• • 6g Build common ground with your audience.
• • 6h Sample student writing: Argument

Chapter 7: Writing in the disciplines

• • 7a Recognize the questions that writers in a discipline ask.
• • 7b Understand the kinds of evidence that writers in a discipline use.
• • 7c Become familiar with a discipline’s language conventions.
• • 7d Use a discipline’s preferred citation style.

Chapter 8: Prefer active verbs.

• • 8a Choose the active voice or the passive voice depending on your writing situation.
• • 8b Replace be verbs that result in dull or wordy sentences.

Chapter 9: Balance parallel ideas.

• • 9a Balance parallel ideas in a series.
• • 9b Balance parallel ideas presented as pairs.

Chapter 10: Add needed words.

• • 10a Add words needed to complete compound structures.
• • 10b Add the word that where needed for clarity.
• • 10c Add words needed to make comparisons logical and complete.

Chapter 11: Untangle mixed constructions.

• • 11a Untangle the grammatical structure.
• • 11b Straighten out the logical connections.
• • 11c Avoid is when, is where, and reason . . . is because constructions.

Chapter 12: Repair misplaced and dangling modifiers.

• • 12a Put limiting modifiers in front of the words they modify.
• • 12b Place phrases and clauses so that readers can see at a glance what they modify.
• • 12c Avoid split infinitives when they are awkward.
• • 12d Repair dangling modifiers.

Chapter 13: Eliminate distracting shifts.

• • 13a Make the point of view consistent in person and number.
• • 13b Maintain consistent verb tenses.

Chapter 14: Emphasize key ideas.

• • 14a Coordinate equal ideas; subordinate minor ideas.
• • 14b Combine choppy sentences.
• • 14c Avoid ineffective or excessive coordination.
• • 14d Do not subordinate major ideas.

Chapter 15: Provide some variety.

• • 15a Vary your sentence openings.
• • 15b Use a variety of sentence structures.
• • 15c Try inverting sentences occasionally.

Chapter 16: Tighten wordy sentences.

• • 16a Eliminate redundancies.
• • 16b Cut empty or inflated phrases.
• • 16c Simplify the structure.
• • 16d Reduce clauses to phrases, phrases to single words.

Chapter 17: Use language that fits your writing situation.

• • 17a Choose a suitable level of formality.
• • 17b Avoid jargon, except in specialized writing situations.
• • 17c Avoid most euphemisms and doublespeak.
• • 17d In most contexts, avoid slang.
• • 17e Avoid sexist and noninclusive language.

Chapter 18: Find the exact words.

• • 18a Select words with suitable connotations.
• • 18b Prefer specific, concrete nouns.
• • 18c Take care with idioms.
• • 18d Do not rely heavily on clichés.
• • 18e Use figures of speech with care.

Chapter 19: Use the right words. (Glossary of usage)

Chapter 20: Repair sentence fragments.

• • 20a Attach fragmented subordinate clauses or turn them into sentences.
• • 20b Attach fragmented phrases or turn them into sentences.
• • 20c Attach other fragmented word groups or turn them into sentences.

Chapter 21: Revise run-on sentences.

• • 21a Consider separating the clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction.
• • 21b Consider separating the clauses with a semicolon, a colon, or a dash.
• • 21c Consider making the clauses into separate sentences.
• • 21d Consider restructuring the sentence, perhaps by subordinating one of the clauses.

Chapter 22: Make subjects and verbs agree.

• • 22a Learn to recognize standard subject-verb combinations.
• • 22b Make the verb agree with its subject, not with a word that comes between.
• • 22c Treat most subjects joined with and as plural.
• • 22d Ensure that subjects joined with or or nor take a verb that agrees with the part of the subject nearer to the verb.
• • 22e Treat most indefinite pronouns as singular.
• • 22f Treat collective nouns as singular unless the meaning is clearly plural.
• • 22g Make the verb agree with its subject even when the subject follows the verb.
• • 22h Make the verb agree with its subject, not with a subject complement.
• • 22i Ensure that who, which, and that take verbs that agree with their antecedents.
• • 22j Treat titles of works, company names, and words mentioned as words as singular.

Chapter 23: Make pronouns and antecedents agree.

• • 23a Take care with indefinite pronouns (anybody, everyone) and generic nouns.
• • 23b Treat collective nouns as singular unless the meaning is clearly plural.
• • 23c Take care with compound antecedents.

Chapter 24: Make pronoun references clear.

• • 24a Avoid ambiguous pronoun reference.
• • 24b Avoid making broad references with this, that, which, and it.
• • 24c Do not use a pronoun to refer to an implied antecedent.
• • 24d Avoid the indefinite use of they and it.
• • 24e To refer to persons, use who, whom, or whose, not which or that.

Chapter 25: Distinguish between pronouns such as I and me.

• • 25a Use the subjective case (I, you, he, she, it, we, they) for subjects and subject complements.
• • 25b Use the objective case (me, you, him, her, it, us, them) for all objects.
• • 25c Put an appositive and the word to which it refers in the same case.
• • 25d Following than or as, choose the pronoun that expresses your meaning.
• • 25e For we or us before a noun, choose the pronoun that would be appropriate if the noun were omitted.
• • 25f Use the objective case for subjects and objects of infinitives.
• • 25g Use the possessive case to modify a gerund.

Chapter 26: Distinguish between who and whom.

• • 26a Use who and whom correctly in subordinate clauses.
• • 26b Use who and whom correctly in questions.

Chapter 27: Choose adjectives and adverbs with care.

• • 27a Use adjectives to modify nouns.
• • 27b Use adverbs to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
• • 27c Distinguish between good and well, bad and badly.
• • 27d Use comparatives and superlatives with care.

Chapter 28: Choose the correct verb forms, tenses, and moods.

• • 28a Choose the correct forms of irregular verbs.
• • 28b Distinguish among the forms of lie and lay.
• • 28c Use -s (or -es) endings on present-tense verbs that have third-person singular subjects.
• • 28d Do not omit -ed endings on verbs.
• • 28e Do not omit needed verbs.
• • 28f Choose the verb tense that suits your meaning.
• • 28g Use the subjunctive mood in the few contexts that require it.

Chapter 29: Review grammar topics for multilingual writers.

• • 29a Use modal verbs to express appropriate meaning.
• • 29b Be familiar with articles and other noun markers.
• • 29c Overcome certain challenges when writing sentences in English.
• • 29d Become familiar with prepositions that show time and place.

Chapter 30: The comma

• • 30a Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction joining independent clauses.
• • 30b Use a comma after an introductory clause or phrase.
• • 30c Use a comma between all items in a series.
• • 30d Use a comma between coordinate adjectives not joined with and.
• • 30e Use commas to set off nonrestrictive (nonessential) elements, but not restrictive (essential) elements.
• • 30f Use commas to set off transitional and parenthetical expressions, absolute phrases, and word groups expressing contrast.
• • 30g Use commas to set off nouns of direct address, the words yes and no, interrogative tags, and mild interjections.
• • 30h Use commas with expressions such as he said to set off direct quotations.
• • 30i Use commas with dates, addresses, titles, and numbers.

Chapter 31: Unnecessary commas

• • 31a Do not use a comma with a coordinating conjunction that joins only two words, phrases, or subordinate clauses.
• • 31b Do not use a comma to separate a verb from its subject or object.
• • 31c Do not use a comma before the first or after the last item in a series.
• • 31d Do not use a comma between cumulative adjectives, between an adjective and a noun, or between an adverb and an adjective.
• • 31e Do not use a comma to set off a concluding adverb clause that is essential for meaning.
• • 31f Do not use a comma after a phrase that begins an inverted sentence.
• • 31g Avoid other common misuses of the comma.

Chapter 32: The semicolon and the colon

• • 32a Use a semicolon between closely related independent clauses not joined with a coordinating conjunction.
• • 32b Use a semicolon between independent clauses linked with a transitional expression.
• • 32c Use a semicolon between items in a series containing internal punctuation.
• • 32d Avoid common misuses of the semicolon.
• • 32e Use a colon after an independent clause to direct attention to a list, an appositive, a quotation, or a summary or an explanation.
• • 32f Follow conventions for colon use.
• • 32g Avoid common misuses of the colon.

Chapter 33: The apostrophe

• • 33a Use an apostrophe to indicate that a noun is possessive.
• • 33b Use an apostrophe and -s to indicate that an indefinite pronoun is possessive.
• • 33c Use an apostrophe to mark omissions in contractions and numbers.
• • 33d Do not use an apostrophe in certain situations.
• • 33e Avoid common misuses of the apostrophe.

Chapter 34: Quotation marks

• • 34a Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotations.
• • 34b Use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within a quotation.
• • 34c Use quotation marks around the titles of short works.
• • 34d Follow conventions for the use of punctuation with quotation marks.
• • 34e Avoid common misuses of quotation marks.

Chapter 35: End punctuation

• • 35a The period
• • 35b The question mark
• • 35c The exclamation point

Chapter 36: Other punctuation marks

• • 36a The dash
• • 36b Parentheses
• • 36c Brackets
• • 36d The ellipsis mark
• • 36e The slash

Chapter 37: Abbreviations, numbers, and italics

• • 37a Use standard abbreviations for titles immediately before and after proper names.
• • 37b Use abbreviations only when you are sure your readers will understand them.
• • 37c Units of measurement
• • 37d Plural of abbreviations
• • 37e Follow the conventions in your discipline for spelling out or using numerals to express numbers.
• • 37f Follow conventions for using numerals in dates, addresses, and so on.
• • 37g Follow conventions for italicizing the titles of works.
• • 37h Italicize non-English words used in an English sentence.

Chapter 38: Spelling and the hyphen

• • 38a Become familiar with the major spelling rules.
• • 38b Consult the dictionary to determine how to treat a compound word.
• • 38c Hyphenate two or more words used together as an adjective before a noun.
• • 38d Hyphenate fractions and certain numbers when they are spelled out.
• • 38e Use a hyphen with the prefixes all-, ex- (meaning “former”), and self- and with the suffix -elect.
• • 38f Check for correct word breaks when words must be divided at the end of a line.

Chapter 39: Capitalization

• • 39a Capitalize proper nouns and words derived from them; do not capitalize common nouns.
• • 39b Capitalize titles of persons when used as part of a proper name but usually not when used alone.
• • 39c Follow conventions for capitalizing titles.
• • 39d Capitalize the first word of a sentence or quoted sentence.
• • 39e Know your options when the first word after a colon begins an independent clause.

Chapter 40: Parts of speech

• • 40a Nouns
• • 40b Pronouns
• • 40c Verbs
• • 40d Adjectives
• • 40e Adverbs
• • 40f Prepositions
• • 40g Conjunctions
• • 40h Interjections

Chapter 41: Sentence patterns

• • 41a Subjects
• • 41b Verbs, objects, and complements

Chapter 42: Subordinate word groups

• • 42a Prepositional phrases
• • 42b Verbal phrases
• • 42c Appositive phrases
• • 42d Absolute phrases
• • 42e Subordinate clauses

Chapter 43: Sentence types

• • 43a Sentence structures
• • 43b Sentence purposes

Chapter 44: Thinking like a researcher; gathering sources

• • 44a Manage the project.
• • 44b Pose questions worth exploring.
• • 44c Map out a search strategy.
• • 44d Search efficiently; master a few shortcuts to finding good sources.
• • 44e Write a research proposal.
• • 44f Conduct field research, if appropriate.

Chapter 45: Managing information; taking notes responsibly

• • 45a Maintain a working bibliography.
• • 45b Keep track of source materials.
• • 45c As you take notes, avoid unintentional plagiarism.

Chapter 46: Evaluating sources

• • 46a Evaluate the reliability and usefulness of a source.
• • 46b Consider how sources might contribute to your research project.
• • 46c Read with an open mind and a critical eye.
• • 46d Assess web sources with special care.
• • 46e Construct an annotated bibliography.

Chapter 47: Writing a research paper

• • 47a Form a working thesis statement.
• • 47b Organize your ideas.

Chapter 48: Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism

• • 48a Understand what plagiarism is.
• • 48b Understand the MLA and APA systems of documentation.
• • 48c Use quotation marks around borrowed language.
• • 48d Put summaries and paraphrases in your own words.

Chapter 49: Integrating sources

• • 49a Summarize and paraphrase effectively.
• • 49b Use quotations effectively.
• • 49c Use signal phrases to integrate sources.
• • 49d Synthesize sources.

Chapter 50: Documenting sources in MLA style

• • 50a MLA in-text citations
• • 50b MLA list of works cited
• • 50c MLA information notes (optional)

Chapter 51: MLA format; sample research paper

• • 51a MLA format
• • 51b Sample MLA research paper

Chapter 52: Documenting sources in APA style

• • 52a APA in-text citations
• • 52b APA list of references

Chapter 53: APA format; sample research paper

• • 53a APA format
• • 53b Sample APA research paper